Teachers’ Psychological Wellbeing as a Mediator between Principals’ Transformational Leadership and Teaching Quality: Evidence from Structural Equation Modeling
Abstract
Improving the quality of education in the modern era demands pedagogical readiness as well as optimal teacher stress management amidst high workloads. This study aims to analyze the structural relationship between Transformative Leadership (Trans), Teacher Well-Being (Wellb), and Learning Quality (Qual). Using a quantitative method with Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) testing, data were collected from 253 elementary school teachers in Kudus Regency who were randomly selected through a simple random sampling technique based on the Slovin formula with a 5% error tolerance. The results of the structural model testing indicate a model fit with the empirical data. Hypothesis testing revealed that Teacher Well-Being is the most dominant determinant with a strong positive influence on Learning Quality (coefficient 0.81), while Transformative Leadership does not have a direct influence (-0.00) but functions as an indirect supporting factor with a weak positive correlation (0.09) with teacher well-being. The novelty of this study lies in placing the internal psychological aspects of teachers as the main mediator and "engine" driving learning quality, not merely a managerial byproduct. The research recommendations urge policymakers to shift their focus from merely principal managerial training to investing in teacher mental health and well-being to create sustainable, adaptive quality education.
References
Agarwal, A., & Raghav, D. (2024). Modelling key drivers of employee behaviour for personal and professional excellence. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 17, 2179–2194. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S448469
Alamos, P., Corbin, C. M., Klotz, M., Lowenstein, A. E., Downer, J. T., & Brown, J. L. (2022). Bidirectional associations among teachers’ burnout and classroom relational climate across an academic year. Journal of School Psychology, 95, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2022.09.001
Alfaro, J., Carrillo, G., Aspillaga, C., Villarroel, A., & Varela, J. (2023). Well-being, school and age, from the understandings of Chilean children. Children and Youth Services Review, 144, Article 106739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106739
Alkhayyal, S., & Bajaba, S. M. (2024). Countering technostress in virtual work environments: The role of work-based learning and digital leadership in enhancing employee well-being. Acta Psychologica, 248, Article 104377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104377
Alvarez, J., de Lima Caneppele, F., Gomez Tobias, R., Segura-Dominguez, C., Navarrete-Bear, M., & Hidalgo, J. (2025). Educational innovation in engineering: Integrating Virtual Reality and Artificial Intelligence in first-year student training. Dalam C. da R. Brito & M. M. Ciampi (Ed.), Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc. https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUNINE62377.2025.10981372
Bailenson, J. N., DeVeaux, C., Han, E., Markowitz, D. M., Santoso, M., & Wang, P. (2025). Five canonical findings from 30 years of psychological experimentation in virtual reality. Nature Human Behaviour, 9(7), 1328–1338. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-025-02216-3
Booker, J. A., & Johnson, C. L. (2024). Personality and resilience in a jarring time: Self-compassion and hope before and during COVID disruptions. Emerging Adulthood. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968241257000
Butler, N., Quigg, Z., Bates, R., Jones, L., Ashworth, E., Gowland, S., & Jones, M. (2022). The contributing role of family, school, and peer supportive relationships in protecting the mental wellbeing of children and adolescents. School Mental Health, 14(3), 776–788. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09502-9
Caldwell, H., Whewell, E., West, A., & Tiplady, H. (2024). Novel spaces as catalysts for change: Transformative learning through transnational projects. Education Sciences, 14(9), Article 954. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090954
Chen, C., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Wang, J., Li, Q., & Sha, K. (2025). Research on the model construction and innovative path of smart education empowering medical education reform. Proceedings of ACM Conference, 310–317. https://doi.org/10.1145/3744367.3744417
Da Fonseca Oliveira, B. M., Moriano, J. A., Laguía, A., & Soares, V. J. S. (2015). The psychosocial profile of the entrepreneur: A study from the point of view of gender [El perfil psicosocial del emprendedor: Un estudio desde la perspectiva de género]. Anuario de Psicología, 45(3), 301–315.
Daniels, M., Flynn, S., & Kelly, J. (2025). Advancing project leadership education through AI-enhanced game-based learning. Project Leadership and Society, 6, Article 100189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plas.2025.100189
Fu, X., Yan, T., Tian, Y., Niu, X., Xu, X., Wei, Y., Hu, Q., Ouyang, Z., & Wu, X. (2022). Exploring factors influencing students’ entrepreneurial intention in vocational colleges based on structural equation modeling: Evidence from China. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 898319. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.898319
Ge, B., Ma, Z., Li, M., Li, Z., Yang, L., & Liu, T. (2022). Influential pathways of employees’ career growth: Linkage of psychological and organizational factors based on qualitative comparative analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 796454. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.796454
Ghamrawi, N., Naccache, H., & Shal, T. (2023). Teacher leadership and teacher wellbeing: Any relationship? International Journal of Educational Research, 122, Article 102261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102261
Guerrero, E. G., Khachikian, T., Frimpong, J. A., Kong, Y., Howard, D. L., & Hunter, S. (2019). Drivers of continued implementation of cultural competence in substance use disorder treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 105, 5–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2019.07.009
Gumus, S., Bellibas, M. S., Esen, M., & Gumus, E. (2018). A systematic review of studies on leadership models in educational research from 1980 to 2014. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 46(1), 25–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143216659296
Hamash, M., Ghreir, H., & Tiernan, P. (2024). Breaking through barriers: A systematic review of extended reality in education for the visually impaired. Education Sciences, 14(4), Article 365. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14040365
Harrison, M. G., Wang, Y., Cheng, A. S., Ka, C., Tam, Y., Pan, Y., & King, R. B. (2025). School climate and teacher wellbeing: The role of basic psychological need satisfaction in student- and school-related domains. Teaching and Teacher Education, 153, Article 104819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104819
Highland, B., Worthington, E. L., Davis, D. E., Sibley, C. G., & Bulbulia, J. A. (2022). National longitudinal evidence for growth in subjective well-being from spiritual beliefs. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(7), 1738–1752. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591053211009280
Hirsh, Å., & Segolsson, M. (2019). Enabling teacher-driven school-development and collaborative learning: An activity theory-based study of leadership as an overarching practice. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 47(3), 400–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143217739363
Hsu, C., Chen, Y., Lin, C., & Lien, W. (2022). Cognitive development, self-efficacy, and wearable technology use in a virtual reality language learning environment: A structural equation modeling analysis. Current Psychology, 41(3), 1618–1632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02252-y
Huang, L., Zhao, D., & Zhou, S. (2024). Examining principal instructional leadership effects on the rural-urban instructional quality gap in China: The mechanism of teacher professional learning. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 81, Article 101346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2024.101346
Hur, Y., & Lee, K. (2019). Identification and evaluation of the core elements of character education for medical students in Korea. Journal of Educational Evaluation for Health Professions, 16, Article 21. https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2019.16.21
Iqbal, S., Zhong, X., Khan, M. A., Wu, Z., AlHammadi, D. A., Liu, W., & Choudhry, I. A. (2025). Continual and wisdom learning for federated learning: A comprehensive framework for robustness and debiasing. Information Processing and Management, 62(5), Article 104157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104157
Ke, W., Peng, L., & Wang, L. (2025). Effects of college students’ perceived transformational leadership of physical education teachers on their exercise adherence: Serial-mediated roles of physical self-efficacy and exercise motivation. Acta Psychologica, 254, Article 104878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104878
Khine, M. S. (2024). Motivation science: A machine-generated literature overview. Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9247-4
Lai, C. (2024). Enhancing multimodal output in CLIL education: The impact of VR games on fourth-grade students’ English poster designs and presentations in Taiwan. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11(1), Article 1380. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03999-y
Lightsey, O. R., & Smith, B. N. (2024). Resilience, generalized self-efficacy, and mindfulness as moderators of the relationship between stress and well-being. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 38(1), 3–23. https://doi.org/10.1891/JCP-2022-0004
Lips-Wiersma, M., & Hall, D. T. (2007). Organizational career development is not dead: A case study on managing the new career during organizational change. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 60(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/job
Liu, J., Gao, J., & Arshad, M. H. (2025). Teacher-student relationships as a pathway to sustainable learning: Psychological insights on motivation and self-efficacy. Acta Psychologica, 254, Article 104788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104788
Liu, L., Li, K., Yue, L., & Zulqarnain, M. (2025). Burnout and leadership in special education: A sustainable approach through the lens of SDG 3 and SDG 4. Acta Psychologica, 259, Article 105421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105421
Lu, J., Lo, C.-L., Bang, N. M., & Romero, D. (2019). A critical review of spiritual well-being scales: Implications for research, practice, and education in rehabilitation counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 62(3), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0034355218776764
Ly, B., Sorn, S., Ly, R., Ma, S., & Doeur, B. (2026). Distributed leadership in higher education: Evidence from Cambodia on academic and institutional outcomes. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 88, Article 101575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2026.101575
Madanipour, P., & Cohrssen, C. (2020). Augmented reality as a form of digital technology in early childhood education. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 45(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1836939119885311
Mao, M., & Zhang, M. (2025). Examining the role of psychological wellbeing in EFL teachers’ pedagogical effectiveness and professional success: A structural equation modeling analysis. Acta Psychologica, 259, Article 105392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105392
Markowitz, A. J., Mayaris, D., Mateus, C., & Weisner, K. (2024). Linking early educator wellbeing to classroom interactions and teacher turnover. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 67, 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2024.01.008
Mehdinezhad, V., & Nouri, F. (2016). The relationship between elementary school principals’ transformational leadership and spiritual well-being. Management in Education, 30(2), 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0892020616643160
Minckler, C. H. (2014). School leadership that builds teacher social capital. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 42(5), 657–679. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143213510502
Obrero-Gaitán, E., Nieto-Escamez, F. A., Zagalaz-Anula, N., & Cortés-Pérez, I. (2021). An innovative approach for online neuroanatomy and neurorrehabilitation teaching based on 3D virtual anatomical models using Leap Motion Controller during COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 590196. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.590196
Ozdogru, M., Tulubas, T., Karakose, T., Kanadlı, S., Kardas, A., & Papadakis, S. (2025). How does teacher self-efficacy mediate the relationship between student outcomes and principal leadership for learning? Results from meta-analytic structural equation modelling (MASEM). Acta Psychologica, 258, Article 105144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105144
Öztürk, Z., Bahçecioğlu Turan, G., & Donmez, O. (2024). Analysis of the relationship between self-neglect and spiritual well-being in older adults. Journal of Elder Abuse & Neglect. https://doi.org/10.1080/08946566.2024.2440719
Papaioannou, G., Volakaki, M. G., Kokolakis, S. A., & Vouyioukas, D. D. (2023). Learning spaces in higher education: A state-of-the-art review. Trends in Higher Education, 2(3), 526–545. https://doi.org/10.3390/higheredu2030032
Patrinos, H. A. (2022). Learning loss and learning recovery. Decision, 49(2), 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40622-022-00317-w
Qi, W., Zhang, Y., & Zulqarnain, M. (2025). Sustainable education in action: Principal leadership, teacher wellbeing, and altruism in the sports context. Acta Psychologica, 254, Article 104846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104846
Ritzman, M. J., & Subramanian, R. (2024). Voices from a pandemic: Understanding how young adults on the autism spectrum use computer-mediated communication. Autism, 28(2), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613231170963
Rong, Q., Lian, Q., & Tang, T. (2022). Research on the influence of AI and VR technology for students’ concentration and creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 767689. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.767689
Sadeghi, K., & Pourbahram, R. (2024). Exploring factors affecting English language teacher wellbeing: Insights from positive psychology. System, 122, Article 103274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103274
Sahertian, P., & Effend, Y. R. (2022). Investigating the principal transformational leadership strategy in implementing character education at the senior high school level (SMA) in Indonesia. Pegem Egitim ve Ogretim Dergisi, 12(3), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.47750/pegegog.12.03.08
Seher, A., Maqbool, K. Q., Gillani, S., Younis, A. H. M., Mustafa, M. A. U., & Fatima, A. (2021). Academic excellence in e-learning based virtual assistance. Proceedings of the International Conference on Software Engineering and Advanced Computing, 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1109/SLAE54202.2021.9788100
Simons, C., Harden, B. J., Lee, K. A., & Tirrell-Corbin, C. (2022). Infant-toddler teachers’ early adversity, current wellbeing, and engaged support of early learning. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 61, 158–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.07.001
Souto, I., Brito, E., & Pereira, A. (2022). Self-efficacy, resilience and distress: Challenges in education for sustainable entrepreneurship in a health context. Education Sciences, 12(10), Article 720. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12100720
Tan, Y., Yang, T., Yang, J., & Li, K. (2025). Mediation of mathematical self-efficacy in the relationship between teacher-student relationships and mathematics achievement by grade and academic level: A multi-group structural equation modeling. Learning and Individual Differences, 120, Article 102696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102696
Timperley, H. S. (2006). Learning challenges involved in developing leading for learning. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 34(4), 546–563. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143206068217
Tov, W., Wirtz, D., Kushlev, K., Biswas-Diener, R., & Diener, E. (2022). Well-being science for teaching and the general public. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(5), 1452–1471. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211046946
Tseer, T., Ngmenkpieo, F., & Kanyiri, A. (2024). Unpacking the dynamics of educational access and teacher wellbeing in Ghana’s free senior high school policy. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, Article 100984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100984
Us, P., Salavera, C., Urb, E., & Aguilar, M. (2024). Psychological wellbeing in teachers: Study in teachers of early childhood and primary education. Heliyon, 10(6), Article e28868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28868
Vo, D. T., Allen, K., & Reupert, A. (2024). Australian teachers’ conceptualisations of wellbeing at work: A prototype analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 147, Article 104653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104653
Wu, G., & Lin, Q. (2025). Artificial intelligence-driven innovation in language teaching and learning in vocational colleges: Paths, practices and challenges. Proceedings of ACM Conference on Education Technology, 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1145/3744367.3744422
Xu, Y., Zhu, Q., & Chen, Y. (2024). Teacher–student relationships and college students’ psychological well-being: The mediating role of supportive school climate. Social Behavior and Personality, 52(2), Article e12928. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.12928
Yépez-Tito, P., Ferragut, M., Cóndor-Guerrón, S., & Blanca, M. J. (2022). Life satisfaction and character strengths in Ecuadorian adolescents. Child Indicators Research, 15(2), 599–616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09886-1
Yotsidi, V., Nikolatou, E.-K., Kourkoutas, E., & Kougioumtzis, G. A. (2023). Mental distress and well-being of university students amid COVID-19 pandemic: Findings from an online integrative intervention for psychology trainees. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, Article 1171225. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1171225
Yu, B. (2025). Technological transformation in language learning: A systematic review of interactive learning tools from software applications to artificial intelligence driven solutions. Proceedings of ACM Conference, 426–432. https://doi.org/10.1145/3744367.3744434
Zeijen, M. E. L., Brenninkmeijer, V., Peeters, M. C. W., & Mastenbroek, N. J. J. M. (2024). The role of personal demands and personal resources in enhancing study engagement and preventing study burnout. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 27, Article e10. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2024.10
Zhou, S., Slemp, G. R., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2025). Profiling pre-service teachers’ motivational and behavioral characteristics: Relationships with psychological wellbeing and occupational commitment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 164, Article 104846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104846
Copyright (c) 2026 Noor Afnan, Sri Utaminingsih, Gunawan Setiadi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The BIP is under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, according to which:
1) Authors retain copyright with the work simultaneously licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution that allows the sharing of articles published with the acknowledgment of authorship and the initial publication in this journal.
2) The authors are authorized to make additional contracts separately for distribution of the version of the work published in this journal (for example, publication in an institutional repository or as a chapter of the book), as long as there is recognition of authorship and initial publication in this journal.
3) Authors are authorized and encouraged to publish and distribute their work online (for example, in institutional repositories or on their personal pages) at any time before or during the editorial process, as it increases the impact and reference of the published work.
